Bastion of the Believers : Madrasas and Islamic Education in India : Yoginder Sikand
Bastion of the Believers : Madrasas and Islamic Education in India
By Yoginder Sikand
Penguin India
PP: Rs 395
Pages: 358
Published: 2005
Reiewed by: Syed Muhd Khairudin Aljunied, Department of History, School of Oriental and African Studies, London , UK . Email: mlsasmk@nus.edu.sg
There is no denying that the devastating attacks on the Twin Towers on 11 September
2001 have accentuated the demonisation of Islamic beliefs, adherents, and most importantly, institutions. Madrasahs, as renowned pundits, journalists, scholars, and terrorist experts continuously allege, are the sites where militant and fanatical ideologies are imbibed.
It is such a rapidly evolving and tumultuous context that prompted Yoginder Sikand to embark on the writing of a data-laden, well-argued, and yet readable book; a book that is situated at the intersections of history, sociology, political science, and Islamic studies. As Yoginder has duly professed in his preface, "the polemics of the enemies of Islam have gone beyond the orientalist mould and pretensions of detachment and objectivity" (p. xvii). Bastions of the Believers is thus a noble attempt by an Indian scholar-activist to dispel the negative images of madrasahs as "dens of terror". By utilising sources gathered from in-depth archival and field research, Yoginder presents us with a nuanced and non-homogenising portrayal of the madrasahs.
The book begins with a discussion on the importance of knowledge (ilm) in Islam and the sacred role of the scholars (ulama) as the preservers of knowledge. Yoginder convincingly argues that the idea of a differentiation between secular and sacred knowledge was nonexistent in the early years of Islam. Rather, to Prophet Muhammad and his companions, knowledge of the religious (dini) and secular(duniavi) were of equal importance towards the achievement of success in the world and the Hereafter. Established several centuries after the Prophet's demise, madrasahs manifested the prophetic approach to knowledge, retaining a high degree of dynamism by training students in both religious and rational sciences. Consequently, career options were fairly wide and graduates of madrasahs took on important roles in state-based institutions.
It was different for the case of madrasahs in India. In Chapter 2, Yoginder delves into
the genesis and evolution of a shift from the original model of madrasahs in the Arabian
Peninsula to that of educational dualism. This had led to a dini–duniavi divide in the
minds of Muslims in India as the Mughal Empire entered the modern phase of world history. Such a condition was made worse by the onslaught of British colonialism which saw the suppression of Muslim revolts and rebellions. Suspicions towards secular knowledge amongst the ulamas heightened and, in consequence, diminished the unending attempts by Muslim reformers to harmonise modernity and Islam.
Chapters 3, 4, and 5 of the book narrate the challenges faced, resistances to change, and further attempts at reforming the madrasahs in post-partitioned India. It is pertinent to note that a considerable amount of established information and arguments in these three chapters is often repeated, which is revealing of Yoginder's endeavour to bring home the point that madrasahs are essentially heterogeneous. Indeed, these institutions had been and are still differentiated along ideological lines between different Sunni schools of thought (maslaks) such as the Barelwis, Deobandis, Jama'ati Islami, and Ahlul Hadith and sects, as seen from examples of the Shiites and Ahmadiyyas. The madrasahs are also sharply divided on the issue of receiving aid from the state and on the establishment of networks with non-Muslim organisations. Whilst the author documents the dismal state of infrastructure, salary scales, syllabuses, and pedagogical methods of many madrasahs in post-independent India , he seeks to provide a balanced depiction by highlighting successful examples of reform and adaptation. Cases in point are madrasahs in Kerala, the Jama'atul Falah in eastern Uttar Pradesh, and Dar ul-'Umoor in Karnataka. Graduates of these educational institutions are said to be contributing to various sectors of the Indian economy and society. To be sure, these three chapters vividly demonstrate that widespread transformations are indeed occurring within the madrasahs. Such efforts to reform are, nonetheless, dampened by a concerted campaign to discredit Islam and its institutions.
This brings us to the last and perhaps most important chapter of the Bastions of Believers. Yoginder is at his best as he deconstructs the spurious correlation between madrasahs, radical politics, and militancy. On the claim that madrasahs are centres of political radicalisation, Yoginder argues that the curriculum is "overwhelmingly conservative, literalist and legalist, but definitely not politically radical"(p. 225). In point of fact, promoters of radical ideologies such as Osama bin Laden are known to have received education in regular universities in the West rather than madrasahs. Contrary to the notion that the ulama were unpatriotic to India, Yoginder cites numerous examples of known personalities who insisted that India, rather than Pakistan , is the place where their loyalty lies. The ulama, Yoginder maintains, has devised various ways to come to terms with the idea of a nation-state by arguing that they are residing in a "land of peace"(dar ul-aman) or a "land of agreement"(dar ul-ahad) rather than "the abode of war"(dar ul-harb)(p. 238). Although there are remnants of Pan-Islamic tendencies within the madrasahs,Yoginder contends that that "does not necessarily lead to militancy, although it does make for certain rigid insularity and cultural separatism" (p. 242). Going further, Yoginder illuminates on how the madrasahs had in fact incorporated studies of other religions in their curriculum so as to promote inter-faith dialogue and provide training of skills for their students for missionary work. Militant madrasahs, as the author forcefully posits,are not to be found in India but in war-ravaged parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan,and Kashmir . With the ever-increasing incidences of clashes between these radical groupings and state authorities, coupled by virulent propaganda of Hindu right-wing movements,the stage was set for madrasahs in India to be reductively labelled as "militant".
It is certain that even if one were to disagree with many of its conclusions, this book will be an important and indispensable text for both students and scholars of Islam in the many years to come.
Exploring Past And Future Of Madrasas In India
By V.B.Rawat
27 November, 2005
Countercurrents.org
Madrasas have become very popular among the non-Muslim world in these terror times when every act of terrorism or violence is somehow linked to Madrasas. While there are very little known facts about Madrasas and how they became important in Muslim world, it would be absolutely incorrect to blame Madrasas for the rise of political Islam or terrorist violence.
Yoginder Sikand's Bastation of Believers: Madrasas and Islamic Education in India published by Penguin Books therefore reveals hitherto unknown facts about Madrasas. Though I have seen the earlier work done on Madrasas yet I would say with conviction that this reveals much. The reason for the same are two. One, Sikand does his work not only meticulously but also passionately. His passion for unfolding history is unparallel and for this purpose he has been traveling nook and corners of the country, scanning Urdu, Persian and Arabic literature and visiting various Madrasas and related institutions. Secondly, he does not suffer from any prejudice as either glamorizing the entire thing as many Muslim scholars might have done in the past or like a Hindu critique who would demolish the entire argument of the Madrasa system as 'communal' breeding 'terrorism'. He has not gone on the issue as a Hindu critique who find fault in everything that the Madrasas do. However, Yoginder Sikand's work reveals many facets of our social system particularly when ones identity decides the quality of the work. This is simply agonizing as he mention in the introduction of the book the suspicious look he got during his research because being a non-Muslim. These things are true also but they also reflect the grave reality how the work gets relegated to back space while an individual's caste and religious identity become big factor.
It is interesting to note that the Madrasa system in India is as diverse as Indian Muslim. There are various sects and sub sects who impart Islamic knowledge to students. Prior to partition, many of the Madrasas were getting help from the state. Partition was double blow for the Muslims as a majority of their secular leadership has in fact migrated to Pakistan. Secondly, the community was still feeling the burden of the cause of partition. The systematic marginalisation of Muslims in the mainstream of India particularly in government offices, schools etc provided fodder for further ghettoisation. Madrasas became a place where even a poor Muslim could get a space to live with and learn religious education. Yoginder Sikand suggests that it is another propaganda about the Muslims that a majority of them go to Madrasas. Muslims also want better education for their children and send them to modern schools.
After the political campaign of the Sangh Parivar in post 1980s, Madrasas became synonymous to Muslim culture and a den of 'terrorism. Word terrorism became another meaning of 'Islam'. Everyday, newspapers would be full of reports regarding the 'terrorist' activities inside the Madrasas. Their number was always speculated. The right wing columnists, the patriots all started writing about the Madrasas, the Muslims and terrorism.
One point that seems missing and would have given more thoughts is not only girls education in Madras which the author has pointed out but also the about non-Muslim who used to get educated in Madrasas. One must not forget that in the past many Hindus were also taught in Madrasas. Even today, many of the Madrasas are educating non-Muslim girls and have introduced computer education also. In major Madrasas of the Avadh region, we can find space for non Muslims also. Madrasas also want to change and those who blame them for doing things in isolation forget that many of the Madrasas in state like Uttar-Pradesh are under direct supervision of the government. In fact, said a Maulvi to me some years back that these days the CID people continue to visit them for a 'break' news. The problem is the stereotyping of the Madrasas a shelter for 'terrorism'. Many Madrasa people in fact asked the government for more resources and funding so that they can start other subjects also. But that has not happened yet.
The September 11 incident in the United States turn things worst for the Madrasas. Now the focus of the international community became not only the life style of Islam but also its education system. Therefore, growth of Madrasas was linked to growth of Muslim fundamentalism. Pakistan clamp down on Madrasas after the US pressure became an example for India to follow. Talk of modernization in the Madrasas started gaining ground again without any hard work done in practice. The grave fact of the matter is that those who are allegedly involved in terrorist activities do not come from the traditional Madrasas but from 'modern' educational institutions. At the same point of time we must be careful not to deny our children modern education for the fear of painting the community in such a way, as it would be bringing back the entire community to Madrasas. It is important to work among the community rather than putting it on tenterhook of either this or that.
I still remember a dialogue with a principal of a Madrasa in Faizabad when he said that Madrasa education impart religious values like Gurukul and the communities do not go commercialized therefore they needed religious education. However, in a country like India, as Yoginder Sikand points out in his conclusion, isolationist tendencies framed by religious institutions like Madrasas could be counter productive for the community. Sikand emphasise on more interfaith dialogues between different communities and not just Muslims and Non-Muslims.
The author has done justice to his work. Not only he has gone deep into the Islamic education system and traditions of the past but also went in detail to find the evolution of the Madrasa system in the country. He has suggested alternative for reform and debunked many myths about the Madrasas. An interesting book for those who want to understand Madrasa system in India.
Name of the Book: Bastions of the Believers--Madrasas
and Islamic Education in India
Publisher: Penguin Books, New Delhi
Year: 2005
Reviewed by: Dominique Sila-Khan
Apart from being a brilliant treatise on Muslim education in its contemporary Indian perspective, Yoginder Sikand's book on the madrasas of India comes at a time when distorted, confused and contradictory ideas about Islam continue to pervade the media. This long expected response to the misgivings and prejudice spread among the general public comes at a time when it becomes urgent to fill the gap.
Based on a wide range of authentic documents and direct inquiries, it has the merit of giving detailed but clear information to a broad readership. Above all, it brings forward a number of distinctions which need to be made between the following elements that are often mixed up: the strengthening of Islamic identity, "orthodox" trends within the madrasas and militant Islam; decline of tolerance and increasing gender discrimination. For example not many are aware of the fact that members of Islamic terrorist organisations have not studied in those madrasas which are have been portrayed in the media as "dens of terror". On the other hand, the establishments affiliated to more conservative schools of thought, such as the Deobandi, are often those who advocate a certain modernisation, such as active participation and education of women.
In order to make us understand the present context the author starts with a brief introduction on the scholarly tradition in India; this is followed by a historical survey of the development of madrasas in South Asia. The historical perspective is meant to remind the reader of an essential fact which is too often overlooked: the basic diversity of Islam and the struggle between conflicting schools of thought that, from the very beginning, has shaped the history of this complex religious tradition. Besides, our attention is attracted on the tremendous impact that the British colonisation had on the madrasas as on religious education in general. It is also noteworthy that most Muslim organisations played a key role in the struggle for Independence.
The second part of the book is devoted to a description and analysis of the madrasa phenomenon in independent India.A survey of the madrasa system in North India, as for instance contrasted with South India, and particularly, Kerala, stresses the diversity of the Islamic education network. Far from being limited to the Deobandi-Barelwi opposition, it is characterized by significant regional differences.
The subject of reforms in the teaching method and in the curriculum is tackled through a number of documents (mainly from contemporary publications) and direct interviews. The conclusion that can be made after having examined the heated debates on modernisation, girls madrasas, state sponsoring and other issues, is that the response to the challenges of contemporary life are many. On the whole it may be said that strong opposition to all form of modernisation and intolerance do not represent the majority of the ulama of the madrasas. Besides, the lack of unity, which characterizes the Islamic education system as well as the personal beliefs and practices of Muslims in India, evidently contradicts the idea that a global "Islamic menace" basically originates from the madrasas.
Finally the much vexed question of the links between madrasas and militancy has been explored by the author with the same deep insight and attempt at maximum objectivity as the above mentioned issues. It appears that even the most conservative and "orthodox" Indian madrasas have little to do with the training of terrorists or invitation to violence. A few individuals working in those educational institutions may occasionally support extremist organisations, but most madrasas leaders have openly condemned terrorism in the name of Islam.
The conclusion proposed by the author brings us back to the stark reality of contemporary India “ but also of the rest of the world “ the widening gap between religious communities, which mixed with complex political, economical and social issues - represent the real threat. Yoginder 's book should be read by all those who wish to have a better and more nuanced understanding of this complex issue.